African and American Civilizations
Study Ghana, Mali, Songhai, Great Zimbabwe, Maya, Aztec, and Inca societies through power, trade, religion, and environment.
A lesson of World History, in Belief Systems and Exchange Networks, about 10 minutes.
By the end of this lesson, you will be able to describe the major civilizations of Sub-Saharan Africa and the Americas in the postclassical period, explain how geography shaped their development, and analyze their economic, political, and cultural achievements.
Beyond Eurasia
World history is often told through Eurasian empires, but sophisticated civilizations independently developed in Sub-Saharan Africa and the Americas. These societies built complex political systems, long-distance trade networks, monumental architecture, and rich cultural traditions — without connection to Eurasian developments.
West African Empires
West Africa's Sahel (semi-arid belt south of the Sahara) was crossed by trans-Saharan trade routes connecting North Africa to Sub-Saharan West Africa. Whoever controlled gold and salt controlled wealth.
Ghana Empire (c. 700–1200 CE):
- Located in modern-day Mauritania/Mali (not today's Ghana)
- Controlled gold fields; taxed trans-Saharan merchants
- Declined after Almoravid Berber invasion (1076) and ecological stress
Mali Empire (c. 1235–1400 CE):
- Founded by Sundiata Keita (celebrated in the Epic of Sundiata)
- Mansa Musa (r. 1312–1337): wealthiest man in history by some estimates; his 1324 hajj pilgrimage to Mecca — with 60,000 attendants and tons of gold — caused inflation across North Africa and the Middle East
- Capital Timbuktu: center of Islamic scholarship; Sankore Mosque and university
Songhai Empire (c. 1430–1591 CE):
- Largest West African empire; absorbed Mali
- Askia Muhammad reorganized administration, standardized weights, promoted Islamic law
- Fell to Moroccan invasion (1591)
East Africa: The Swahili Coast
Geography: Indian Ocean monsoon winds linked East Africa to Arabia, India, and Southeast Asia.
Swahili City-States: Kilwa, Mombasa, Sofala — wealthy trading cities on the East African coast.
- Traded gold and ivory from interior Africa for porcelain, cloth, and glass from Asia
- Swahili language: Bantu base with Arabic vocabulary — product of cultural exchange
- Architecture: coral-stone mosques, palaces (Great Mosque of Kilwa)