Thinking, Problem Solving, and Language
Explain concepts, prototypes, heuristics, algorithms, biases, creativity, language development, and linguistic influences.
A lesson of AP Psychology, in Learning, Cognition, Memory, and Language, about 10 minutes.
By the end of this lesson, you will be able to describe problem-solving strategies and their limitations, explain cognitive biases, and analyze language acquisition theories.
Concepts and Categories
Concept: a mental grouping of similar objects, ideas, or events.
Prototype: the most representative example of a concept (a robin is a better prototype of "bird" than an ostrich).
Fuzzy boundaries: concepts overlap and don't have perfectly sharp edges ("is a tomato a fruit or vegetable?").
Problem-Solving Strategies
Algorithms: step-by-step procedures that guarantee a correct solution if followed precisely. Example: using long division. Reliable but slow.
Heuristics: mental shortcuts that usually work but can lead to errors. Faster than algorithms.
Insight: sudden "aha!" recognition of a solution — not gradual. Associated with activity in the right temporal lobe.
Common Cognitive Biases
Representativeness heuristic: judge the likelihood of something based on how well it matches a prototype, ignoring actual base rates.
Example: "Linda is active in social causes. Is she more likely to be (a) a bank teller or (b) a feminist bank teller?" Most people say (b) — the conjunction fallacy; (b) can't be more likely than (a).
Availability heuristic: judge likelihood based on how easily examples come to mind. Vivid, recent events are easier to recall → their likelihood is overestimated (shark attacks vs. car accidents).
Anchoring bias: over-reliance on the first piece of information encountered.
Overconfidence: more confidence in beliefs than is warranted by the evidence.
Framing effect: decisions are affected by how options are presented ("90% survival rate" vs. "10% mortality rate" — same information, different choices).
Confirmation bias: search for, favor, and remember information that confirms existing beliefs.
Functional fixedness: inability to see an object used in ways other than its conventional use. Classic example: using a box as a stand when solving the candle problem.
Mental set: tendency to approach a problem using a strategy that worked before, even when a different strategy would be more effective.